Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is an electron-beam–based imaging method in which a focused, raster-scanned electron probe interacts with a specimen surface to generate signals such as secondary electrons, backscattered electrons, and characteristic X-rays. These signals are collected by detectors to produce high-resolution, high-depth-of-field images and, with appropriate detectors, compositional or crystallographic information. SEM typically operates under high vacuum, though variable-pressure and environmental modes allow imaging of non-conductive or hydrated samples with reduced preparation. Common applications include surface morphology characterization, microstructural analysis, failure analysis, and correlative studies with techniques like EDS/EBSD for integrated materials and biological research.
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