Biological networks, as physical systems, comprise interconnected biomolecular or cellular components whose interactions give rise to emergent functional organization in living organisms. They include gene regulatory, protein–protein interaction, metabolic, neuronal, and signaling networks, each instantiated by tangible entities such as DNA, proteins, metabolites, or cells and their spatially constrained contacts. These systems exhibit nontrivial topology (e.g., modularity, hubs, motifs) and dynamic behavior governed by biochemical reaction kinetics, diffusion, and mechanical coupling. Biological networks underpin robustness, adaptability, and information processing in cells and tissues, and are quantitatively studied using tools from statistical physics, nonlinear dynamics, and network theory.
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