The Pliocene is a geologic epoch of the Neogene Period, spanning approximately 5.33 to 2.58 million years ago, immediately following the Miocene and preceding the Pleistocene. It is characterized by continued global cooling and aridification, progressive closure of seaways such as the Isthmus of Panama, and consequent reorganization of ocean circulation and climate systems. The Pliocene saw expansion of grasslands, diversification and radiation of grazing mammals, and important evolutionary developments within the hominin lineage. It serves as a key interval for studying climate dynamics, including high-CO₂ warm states and polar amplification, often used as an analog for near-future climate scenarios in paleoclimatology and Earth system modeling.
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