Liverworts and hornworts are non-vascular land plants (bryophytes sensu lato) that occupy key positions in early land-plant evolution and are important models for studying plant development, phylogeny, and plant–microbe interactions. They lack true roots, have dominant gametophyte generations, and rely on spores for dispersal, with water-dependent fertilization via motile sperm. Liverworts typically exhibit thalloid or leafy morphologies with simple tissue organization and oil bodies, whereas hornworts possess persistent, horn-like sporophytes with basal meristems and often large chloroplasts per cell. Both groups contribute to soil formation, nutrient cycling, and provide insights into the origin of plant signaling pathways and stress responses.
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