Gymnosperms are a clade of seed-producing vascular plants characterized by ovules and seeds that are not enclosed within an ovary, instead being exposed on the surface of specialized structures such as cone scales. They include major extant lineages such as conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and gnetophytes. Gymnosperms exhibit secondary growth, lignified tissues, and typically tracheid-based xylem, with limited or absent vessel elements in most groups. They play central roles in terrestrial ecosystems and biogeochemical cycles, and are key subjects in studies of seed plant evolution, reproductive biology, genome architecture, and adaptations to diverse environmental conditions, particularly in temperate and boreal regions.
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