Soil formation, or pedogenesis, is the set of physical, chemical, and biological processes that transform unconsolidated parent material into structured soil profiles. It is governed by five classic soil-forming factors: climate, organisms (including vegetation and microbes), relief (topography), parent material, and time. Key mechanisms include weathering of minerals, organic matter accumulation and decomposition, eluviation and illuviation of clays and solutes, and aggregation into distinct horizons (O, A, E, B, C). These processes control soil texture, structure, porosity, pH, nutrient availability, and horizon differentiation, thereby determining soil classification and function in terrestrial ecosystems.
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