Granular materials, as a physical system, comprise large assemblies of discrete macroscopic particles that interact predominantly via contact forces, friction, and inelastic collisions, leading to inherently dissipative, non-equilibrium behavior. They exhibit dual solid-like and fluid-like responses depending on stress, packing fraction, and driving conditions, with phenomena such as jamming, dilatancy, force chains, and shear banding. Continuum descriptions often employ modified elasto-plastic or rheological models (e.g., μ(I) rheology), while discrete element methods resolve particle-scale dynamics. Their mechanical response is strongly history-dependent and non-linear, with emergent collective effects that challenge conventional thermodynamic and hydrodynamic formalisms.
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