In the context of physical systems, 3-dimensional systems are systems whose relevant degrees of freedom are embedded in or constrained by three spatial dimensions, typically described by coordinates (x, y, z) in Euclidean space. Their behavior is governed by field equations or dynamical laws defined over a 3D manifold, such as Maxwell’s equations, Navier–Stokes equations, or Schrödinger’s equation in three spatial dimensions. These systems exhibit phenomena inherently dependent on 3D geometry and topology, including volumetric interactions, three-component vector fields, and spatially resolved boundary conditions, and they often require tensorial or vector calculus formalisms for accurate modeling and analysis.
Within tissues, cells are embedded in complex, three-dimensional structures known as the extracellular matrix. Their biomechanical interactions play a crucial role in numerous biological processes. Scientists at the Max Planck ...
Cell & Microbiology
Dec 2, 2025
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In the world of optics, tiny structures called microcavities—often no wider than a human hair—play a crucial role in technologies ranging from lasers to sensors.
Optics & Photonics
Nov 6, 2025
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In science and engineering, it's unusual for innovation to come in one fell swoop. It's more often a painstaking plod through which the extraordinary gradually becomes ordinary.
General Physics
Oct 14, 2025
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Typically, the charge of electrons is used to store and process information in electronics-based devices. In spintronics, the focus is instead on the magnetic moment or on magnetic vortices, so-called skyrmions—the goal ...
Condensed Matter
Oct 6, 2025
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To explore possible treatments for various diseases, either animal models or human cell cultures are usually used first; however, animal models do not always mimic human diseases well, and cultures are far removed from tissue ...
Bio & Medicine
Sep 29, 2025
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The field of tissue engineering aims to replicate the structure and function of real biological tissues. This engineered tissue has potential applications in disease modeling, drug discovery, and implantable grafts.
Biotechnology
Sep 18, 2025
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Two-dimensional (2D) materials, thin crystalline substances only a few atoms thick, have numerous advantageous properties compared to their three-dimensional (3D) bulk counterparts. Most notably, many of these materials allow ...
Researchers have developed a technique to fold glass sheets into microscopic 3D photonic structures directly on a chip—a process they call photonic origami. The method could enable tiny, yet complex optical devices for ...
Optics & Photonics
Aug 21, 2025
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Some phases of matter cannot be described using the conventional framework of symmetry breaking and exhibit a so-called quantum order. One type of quantum order, known as topological order, is characterized by long-range ...
Using 3D holograms polished by artificial intelligence, researchers introduce a lean, eyeglass-like 3D headset that they say is a significant step toward passing the "Visual Turing Test."
Optics & Photonics
Jul 28, 2025
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